Archaeologists have confirmed the discovery of four walled oases that date to about 4,000 years ago. The structures suggests a coordinated landscape of fortified settlements across northwest Arabia.
The finding reframes the region as a managed and contested environment where land, water, and authority were organized at scale.
Walled oases redraw desert life
Across northwest Arabia, the remains of massive enclosure walls trace continuous outlines around oases that once anchored permanent settlement in the desert.
By following those traces on the ground and in archives, Guillaume Charloux at the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) documented how multiple walled oases across northwest Arabia fit into a single fortified pattern.
The walls link places long treated as separate, showing that enclosure was not an exception but a repeated response to shared pressures over land and resources.
That pattern sets limits on how the desert can be understood and points to deeper questions about labor, control, and exchange that extend beyond any single walled oasis.
Measuring walls and labor
Some enclosures wrapped around whole oasis basins, turning a line of earth into a border that people could patrol.
At Al-Ayn, a smaller oasis settlement in northwest Arabia, researchers measured ramparts, raised defensive walls built for protection, at about 6.5 feet (2 meters) thick and roughly 5 miles (8 kilometers) long.
Old photos also revealed sun-dried brick walls at a different site stretching about 1.2 miles (1.9 kilometers), far beyond the houses.
Walls at that scale demanded steady repairs, so the community needed leaders who could mobilize work and supplies.
Finding walled oases from above
From the ground, many walls look like low ridges, but satellite views trace their full curves around oases.
Charloux compared Bing maps with Google Earth images, and CNRS researchers then walked key sites to check the lines.
At two of the smaller sites, the team noted bastions, outward wall bumps that support defense, matching the style seen at Khaybar.
Remote mapping can flag targets fast, but only excavation can show who lived there, and when builders raised walls.
What the walled oases contained
Inside the walls sat more than homes, because the enclosures wrapped around wells, pens, and fields.
They protected water sources, goats, sheep, and crops, including cereals and fruits, and later they sheltered date palms.
By fencing resources into one managed space, residents could ration grazing and keep irrigation ditches safe during tense seasons.
That security supported denser settlement, but it also made oases tempting targets for outsiders who wanted water and harvests.
How the walled oasis model spread
Evidence points to the first big oasis walls being built early in the third millennium B.C.E. in the northern region. By the end of that millennium, builders had carried the plan south into volcanic desert regions farther across the peninsula.
Later centuries added new circuits, showing how fortification expanded again near the end of the first millennium B.C.E.
That long timeline suggests walled oases acted as a reusable plan for controlling scarce water, even as rulers changed.
Power behind the walls
Building a wall around farmland sends a clear message about who owns the oasis and who must obey.
“The walled oasis is not merely defensive, but represents a model of socioeconomic development that marks the complete takeover of a well-watered and rural landscape by a political entity,” wrote Dr. Charloux.
At Khaybar, a fortified town called al-Natah shows that walls sometimes enclosed dense neighborhoods, not only fields.
Once a group drew those boundaries, neighbors could challenge them, and disputes over wells could turn into raids.
Caravans, kingdoms, and control
Walled oases also sat on routes that moved goods across the peninsula, so it was important to regulate who entered.
Charloux argued that the fortified oasis model helped later caravan kingdoms grow, because it secured supplies for travelers and animals.
A strong wall advertised stability, which made deals safer and gave local leaders leverage when merchants negotiated prices.
Trade brought wealth into the oasis, but it also raised the stakes of control and sharpened rivalries.
When walls outlasted empires
Many walls stayed in place for centuries, and later communities repaired or reused them instead of starting from scratch.
Some enclosures kept working into the twenty-first century through restoration, and the model still protected farms during the 1800s and 1900s.
Other sites swapped static walls for different defenses, so the pattern changed with new weapons, politics, and settlement layouts.
That endurance suggests the walled oasis solved a constant problem, because mobile raiders could strike fast in open country.
What remains uncertain
Even with walls traced on maps, archaeologists still lack firm dates for many enclosures and the people who built them.
Surface finds of burnished ware, pottery polished until it shines, linked several smaller enclosures to about 2000 B.C.E.
Only careful excavation can show how builders mixed soil and water, and how often residents rebuilt weak sections.
“Despite current limitations in the understanding of local fortification systems, including their dating and means of construction, the discovery or confirmation of new walled oases underscores the need for further archaeological exploration of this millennia-old phenomenon in north-west Arabia and in other desert contexts,” Charloux wrote.
A desert full of cities
Confirmed walls now make one point clear: desert oases acted as defended infrastructure, supporting towns, farms, and regional ties.
Future digs can test which groups controlled each oasis, and they can show how cooperation survived when water shortages hit.
Much of the MENA region has achieved near-universal access to electricity, but Yemen and Djibouti are lagging. Only 65 percent of people in Djibouti have electricity access, while in Yemen, around 76 percent do. Despite the current sad events, The World Bank is trying to bring light and hope to Djibouti and Yemen. Here is what they say.
Above image: Solar energy powers Yabouth Health Center in Yemen Hadramaaut governorate
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Illuminating Lives: Bringing Light and Hope to Djibouti and Yemen
Solar panels on top of a hospital in Yafea-Lahj in Yemen.
In Yemen, nearly 800,000 people (of whom approximately 50 percent were women and girls) benefited from new or improved electricity service.
Over 117,000 households gained electricity access via grid or off-grid connections, with over 36,000 female beneficiaries.
Over 3.2 million individuals (51 percent of whom are female) received improved electricity access in critical facilities, such as health centers, schools, andwater systems.
In Djibouti, over 14,005 households have been connected, benefiting approximately 98,035 individuals, including over 42,000 women and girls, and contributing to a 16 percent increase in total household connections nationwide.
The installation of 2,900 public streetlights has enhanced safety and security, directly benefiting almost 121,800 people.
Over 219,835 people now benefit from the project, either through direct household connections or improved public lightings.
Synopsis
Much of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has achieved near-universal access to electricity, but Yemen and Djibouti are lagging behind. Only 65 percent of people in Djibouti have electricity access, while in Yemen around 76 percent of people have electricity access (estimates suggest that only 12% of the population relies on the utility). The World Bank is working to address the challenge of electricity access in these countries through a range of measures including innovative financial mechanisms, strengthening markets, and promoting energy transitions.
Between 2018 and 2022, the Yemen Emergency Electricity Access Project (YEEAP) worked to improve electricity access in rural and peri-urban areas using solar energy. Implemented by UNOPS, it benefited nearly 800,000 individuals, of whom approximately 50 percent were female, by providing solar systems to households and critical facilities. Building on its success, a follow-up operation, the Yemen Emergency Electricity Access Project Phase II was approved in June 2022. The Djibouti Sustainable Electrification Project (SEP), launched in June 2017 has connected 14,005 households (benefiting over 98,035 people, including 5,000 vulnerable households) and installed 2,900 streetlights, benefiting almost 121,800 people, significantly improving access to electricity and community safety, with 46 percent of beneficiaries being women/girls.
Beneficiary Quote
For Aicha, a mother of seven in Balbala, one of Djibouti’s largest slums, electricity was once a distant dream. Like many others, her family relied on unsafe kerosene lamps and unreliable battery-powered flashlights. The lack of electricity affected every aspect of their lives, from her children’s education to the care of her son with special needs.
Today, Aicha’s home is a testament to the transformative power of the World Bank’s SEP. Her children can now study comfortably at home, and fans provide much-needed relief from the sweltering heat. “It’s made such a difference for us,” Aicha shares. “Now, my children can focus on their studies, and we don’t have to worry about the heat as much.”
In Yemen’s Zameh subdistrict in the Al-Naderah district, fetching water was once a daily struggle. Thanks to the World Bank-funded YEEAP, this challenge has been transformed, improving lives significantly. Muhammad Abda Ubaid, a resident of Zameh, said, “Women and children used to embark on a four-hour journey to fetch water from a distant well and bring it home. They started the journey as early as 3 a.m. to be one of the first arrivals and avoid the crowding at the well.” In 2023, YEEAP transformed Zameh and nearby villages by installing solar-powered water pumping systems. Designed by UNOPS, the system relays water through multiple tanks at increasing altitudes, ensuring clean water reaches households across remote mountain villages. “This is a blessing!” added Muhammad. “Today, water reaches our homes. Women and children no longer have to walk long distances to bring water – it’s a dream coming true!”
Challenge
While most of the MENA region enjoys near-universal electricity access, Djibouti and Yemen lag behind significantly. In Djibouti, only 65 percent of the population (and less than 20 percent in rural areas) had access in 2022. During the same period, in Yemen 76 percent of the population had access to electricity. Only 12 percent of Yemenis relied on public electricity. However, although many Yemenis are connected to the grid, they experience prolonged blackouts due to lack of fuel for power plants. Most recently, Aden faced a major electricity blackout due to shortages of fuel supply.
Yemen’s prolonged conflict has devastated its energy sector and worsened already inadequate energy supply, leaving rural areas reliant on kerosene. This exacerbates crises in healthcare, water, and education, while failure of power supply also limits children’s ability to study in the evenings and contributes to additional security and safety concerns among women, deepening gender disparities.
Similarly, access to electricity remains a major impediment to Djibouti’s socioeconomic growth. The country relies on imported hydropower from Ethiopia, accounting for over 80 percent of its power supply, supplemented by a 60-megawatt (MW) privately-owned wind farm and 120-MW thermal capacity from polluting publicly owned diesel generators, of which only 60 MW are effectively available due to aging and costly infrastructure. Addressing these barriers is vital for achieving Djibouti’s Vision 2035, which aims for universal energy access and renewable energy reliance, aligned with Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 7 and SDG 13).
Approach
The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region faces urgent energy infrastructure challenges, requiring improved investment quality to accelerate energy transitions and strengthen energy security. With limited fiscal space and rising debt, countries must explore innovative strategies to mobilize private financing for infrastructure. MENA holds immense potential to become a global green energy hub, with abundant solar (4.5 kilowatt-hour (kWh)/kilowatt peak (kWp) daily photovoltaic (PV) output) and wind resources (an average speed of 7.5 meters per second), proximity to major markets, and opportunities for clean electricity and green hydrogen exports.
The World Bank is addressing these issues through three strategic priorities: scaling up energy transition to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and tap into renewable energy potential, reforming energy state-owned enterprises and markets, and promoting regional connectivity and energy trade.
In Djibouti and Yemen, these regional priorities are reflected in projects tailored to country needs: given shortfalls in access to electricity, the World Bank approach prioritizes access, and promotes energy transitions, as abundant natural resources hold considerable potential to increase energy security in these countries.
In Yemen, the Emergency Electricity Access Project (YEEAP) has worked to enable the installation of solar units in peri-urban and rural households and critical public facilities (e.g., hospitals, schools). The project engaged the private sector, focusing on microfinance institutions (MFIs), which were instrumental in developing solar financing solutions. By gradually transferring procurement responsibilities to MFIs and reducing subsidies, the project strengthened the local solar value chain and market sustainability. The project harnessed innovative financing mechanisms, including subsidies tailored to market conditions, encouraging affordability while fostering private sector growth. Pay-As-You-Go schemes further improved accessibility for low-income households, especially women.
The World Bank estimates that 12 percent of the population relies on the utility, while 76 percent have access (but that could mean only receiving one or two hours of grid electricity a day). It can also mean that they have a small pico system that provides just enough for light, fan, and a phone charger and we call that access. And although many Yemenis are connected to the grid (over 90 percent in the Internationally Recognized Government (IRG) controlled areas), they experience prolonged blackouts due to lack of fuel for power plants, especially in the IRG-controlled areas. Most recently, Aden, the temporary capital, has been left without electricity.
In Djibouti, expansion of electricity access to the poorest segments of the Djiboutian population, through the Djibouti Sustainable Electrification Program (SEP) relied on strengthening the country’s transmission network in Djibouti City and the Interior Zones. The constructed low- and medium-voltage lines, as well as 60 new substations, to enable the extension of electricity previously underserved areas. Beyond physical infrastructure, the SEP emphasized capacity building and institutional development, as well as key studies such as the distribution master plan that would assist utility and the Government in continuing boosting access rate throughout the country.
Results: Year Launched – Year Closed
In Yemen and Djibouti, a focus on expanding energy access has enabled household connections that benefit close to 900,000 people in the two countries, of whom 420,837 are female. Electrification of public infrastructure, including critical facilities (health centers, schools and water infrastructure) and streetlights, has benefited more than 3.4 million people.
In Yemen, the YEEAP was completed in December 2022, and delivered transformative outcomes, improving access, supporting local markets, and promoting long-term sustainability in the energy sector. It provided electricity access to close to 800,000 people, approximately half of whom were women and girls. High-quality solar systems reached over 117,000 households, including 36,157 female-headed households. The project electrified critical facilities, benefiting over 3.2 million people and significantly improving service delivery.
By replacing diesel generators with solar systems, the initiative reduced greenhouse gas emissions, enhanced air quality, and bolstered climate resilience. Institutional strengthening efforts fostered local capacity and private sector growth among MFIs, and female staff participation doubled to enable MFIs to improve outreach to women.
Additionally, the project emphasized capacity building, training solar technicians, and raising awareness of renewable energy benefits, ensuring long-term impact and sustainability. Building on its success, the YEEAP–Phase II was launched in 2022 and has helped build 347 facilities have been built, benefiting nearly 2.6 million people, while over 450,000 people have received PV solar systems.
In Djibouti, the SEP has significantly transformed the country’s energy landscape. By 2024, 14,005 households were connected to electricity, benefiting over 98,035 individuals, including over 45,096 women and girls, and enhancing livelihoods for 5,000 vulnerable households. Additionally, 2,900 streetlights were installed, benefiting nearly 121,800 people and improving safety and mobility. Over 219,835 people benefit from the project, either through direct household connections or enhanced public lighting, far exceeding the initial target of 130,900 beneficiaries. Moreover, infrastructure investments included over 220 kilometers of power lines and 60 substations, facilitating reliable electricity access in underserved regions.
Public services—schools, health centers, and markets—benefited from reliable electricity, improving educational outcomes, healthcare delivery, and economic opportunities. A total of 26,100 people gained access to electricity through community connections, including at mosques, schools, and health centers. Intangible outcomes included enhanced safety, environmental benefits from reduced diesel reliance, and the empowerment of women and girls through targeted interventions. These achievements align with Djibouti’s long-term vision of universal access to electricity and sustainable development, supported by the preparation of the country’s power distribution master plan, which aims to connect 100 percent of its population to reliable electricity sourced entirely from renewable energy by 2035.
Graphs and Data Visualization
Results Achieved in Yemen
Collaboration across the World Bank Group
In Djibouti, the World Bank, through a MIGA guarantee, has supported the development of a 60 MW privately owned wind farm to facilitate the country’s transition toward renewable energy. This project contributes to Djibouti’s objective of achieving 100 percent renewable energy supply by 2035 and will help meet the increasing power demand generated by the SEP, enabling Djibouti to continue its electrification efforts while relying on renewable energy sources.
World Bank Group Contribution
In Yemen, the YEEAP project’s total cost was $50 million, financed entirely by an IDA grant. The second phase of the project, YEEAP II, was approved with additional financing of $100 million until 2026, and has disbursed $65 million to date.
In Djibouti, the SEP was funded by a $23.3 million IDA credit and $4.85 million from Djibouti’s government, supporting infrastructure expansion, capacity building, and technical assistance.
Partnerships
In Yemen, the YEEAP project benefited from close collaboration with the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS, the UN agency dedicated to project implementation and management in development and the humanitarian space). Due to the conflict in Yemen, project implementation was managed by UNOPS. This arrangement leveraged UNOPS expertise in fragile environments and complemented the urban infrastructure efforts of the World Bank’sYemen Integrated Urban Services Emergency Project (YIUSEP), which also worked closely with UNOPS. project was recently recognized through the prestigious National Globe award for the year 2024.
Looking Ahead
In Yemen, YEEAP Phase II is building on the success of YEEAP Phase I, supporting households, critical facilities, and vaccine cold chains. Emphasizing sustainability, YEEAP Phase II enhances private sector involvement, innovative financing, and local capacity, advancing Yemen’s clean energy transition.
In Djibouti, the focus remains on supporting the government in achieving universal access by 2035. According to the World Bank Group corporate scorecard, the project has reached 98,035 (as of February 7, 2025) compared to the planned 97,729, beneficiaries have been reached.
In addition, the high cost of electricity, combined with Djibouti’s extreme heat of its arid climate, limits low-income households’ ability to meet essential energy needs, such as cooling and food preservation (as highlighted in the country CCDR).
To address these challenges, the World Bank is also providing support to (i) the second Djibouti-Ethiopia Power System Interconnection Project, a US$55 million investment project, with the objective to increase the share of RE in Djibouti’s energy mix through the imports of more hydropower (Project Development Objective: to enhance the trade of reliable, low-cost, and clean electricity between Ethiopia and Djibouti), and (ii) an extensive technical assistance to the government and Electricité de Djibouti (EDD) aiming at: strengthening sector governance, enhancing regulatory frameworks, promoting private sector participation in renewable energy generation, improving sector performance and competitiveness, and increasing the reliability as well as the affordability of electricity services to different types of consumers in Djibouti.
A child in Yemen’s Badan district in Ibb governorate uses running water powered by solar energy at his home.
Ehsan a student at a school in Yemen’s Madoda district in Hadhramaut governorate practices computer science.
Solar panels at this water well in Yemen’s Badan district Ibb governorate supply homes with running water.
Photo of low voltage lines and public lights. Location: Nassib, Balbala.
The Construction of the World’s First 3D-printed Hotel could become a trend in the MENA region, where tourism is increasingly attracted by its vast and unexplored expenses. Or is it another more accessible way to over-build the world, even the deserts?
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Above image: Imagine a 3D printer, not the kind that fits on your desk, but one the size of a crane, meticulously layering concrete to create structures that seem to rise organically from the desert floor. (Photo credit: ICON)
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The Texan Desert Gets a Futuristic Makeover with Construction of World’s First 3D-Printed Hotel
By Gavriel Shohet, HTN staff writer – 9.26.2024
Forget cookie-cutter hotels and predictable layouts. El Cosmico, the beloved campground and hotel on the outskirts of Marfa, Texas, is embarking on an expansion that’s as unique as the West Texas landscape itself. Get ready for El Cosmico 2.0, the world’s first 3D-printed hotel, a project that’s pushing the boundaries of both architecture and construction technology.
Imagine a 3D printer, not the kind that fits on your desk, but one the size of a crane, meticulously layering concrete to create structures that seem to rise organically from the desert floor. That’s the scene unfolding in Marfa, where El Cosmico is adding 43 new hotel units and 18 residential homes across 60 acres, all thanks to the magic of 3D printing. This expansion isn’t just about adding more rooms; it’s about creating a new kind of experience, one that blends seamlessly with the natural beauty and artistic spirit of Marfa.
This ambitious project is a collaboration between El Cosmico owner Liz Lambert, known for her innovative approach to hospitality, Austin-based 3D printing company ICON, and the renowned architects of Bjarke Ingels Group. The result is a fusion of cutting-edge technology and artistic vision, creating a hotel that’s unlike anything the world has ever seen.
“Most hotels are contained within four walls and a lot of times you are building the same unit over and over and over again,” Lambert explains. “I’ve never been able to build with such little constraint and such fluidity … just the curves, and the domes, and the parabolas. It’s a crazy way to build.”
ICON’s Vulcan 3D printer, a behemoth of a machine standing 15.5 feet tall and spanning 46.5 feet wide, is the star of the show. It glides across the construction site, its robotic arm extruding a special cement-based mixture called Lavacrete, layer by layer, to form the walls of the hotel units and residences. The result is a collection of structures with sinuous curves, rounded edges, and architectural features that would be prohibitively expensive to create with traditional construction methods. Imagine sweeping arches, vaulted ceilings, and walls that undulate like the nearby sand dunes – all made possible by the precision and flexibility of 3D printing.
photo credit: ICON
The first two units under construction, a three-bedroom residential space and a single-room hotel unit, showcase the potential of this technology. Their 12-foot-high walls, a warm beige hue thanks to the Lavacrete’s unique properties, flow seamlessly into rounded corners and arched doorways, creating a sense of organic harmony with the surrounding desert landscape. The interiors, too, will reflect this connection to nature, with natural light flooding in through strategically placed windows and a minimalist aesthetic that emphasizes the beauty of the raw materials.
While the technology is undeniably impressive, the human element remains crucial. ICON CEO Jason Ballard emphasizes the importance of skilled workers who adjust the Lavacrete mixture based on weather conditions, ensuring optimal printability and strength. Humidity, temperature, and even the amount of sunlight can affect the material’s behavior, requiring a nuanced understanding of both the technology and the environment.
Photo credit: ICON
And even with the automation provided by the Vulcan, human hands are still needed for the finishing touches, transforming the 3D-printed structures into comfortable and inviting spaces. Artisans will add handcrafted details, local materials will be incorporated into the design, and the landscaping will blend seamlessly with the native flora, creating a truly unique and immersive experience for guests.
The El Cosmico expansion, slated for completion in 2026, is a testament to the transformative potential of 3D printing in the construction industry. It’s not just about speed and efficiency; it’s about unlocking new levels of creativity and pushing the boundaries of architectural design. As Lambert puts it, “It’s a crazy way to build,” but the results are undeniably captivating, offering a glimpse into a future where technology and artistry converge to create truly unique and inspiring spaces. El Cosmico 2.0 is poised to become a destination in itself, attracting travelers seeking not just a place to stay, but an experience that challenges their perceptions of what a hotel can be.
According to a report from the International Energy Agency (IEA), all nations can achieve the ambitious goals of COP28 and triple clean energy capacity by the end of the decade if they clear regulatory bottlenecks and modernize the grid. So, Renewable energy and fossil fuel goals are within reach, but a huge push is needed. This seems to be an improvement from Renewables to supply half of global power by 2030.
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Renewable energy, fossil fuel goals within reach, but huge push needed: IEA
Featured image: Contractors install solar panels at the Phillips 66 Rodeo Renewable Energy Complex in Rodeo, California, US, on Wednesday, July 31, 2024. Phillips 66’s San Francisco refinery, which for years manufactured products like gasoline and jet fuel, is now producing only renewable fuels and is partially powered by solar energy. Photographer: David Paul Morris/Bloomberg via Getty Images
Nations can achieve the ambitious goals of the COP28 climate conference and triple clean energy capacity by the end of the decade if they clear regulatory bottlenecks and modernize the grid, according to a report published Tuesday by the International Energy Agency (IEA).
In the report, the IEA said the 200 nations that participated in the Dubai summit could achieve its commitments, which include net zero emissions by 2030 as well as tripling renewables. It attributed this to a variety of factors, including government policies creating incentives.
However, it added, the added capacity alone will not automatically cut consumer costs or reduce fossil fuel emissions. To take full advantage, participating nations must modernize the equivalent of about 15.5 million miles of grid and multiply current battery storage by 15 for a total of 12 gigawatts, according to the report.
In the report, the IEA calls for a country-by-country approach to these goals, rather than seeking to apply a one-size-fits-all strategy to different countries that may be at varying stages in the process.
For example, if countries that still use predominantly traditional cookstoves rather than those using renewable energy for cooking were to transition over, it could save energy equivalent to the annual demand of Brazil.
In wealthier economies, meanwhile, electricity use creates the greatest opportunity for efficiency improvements. In those cases, the authors wrote, increased use of electric vehicles and heat pumps will be a major driver for those improvements.
“As this new IEA report shows, the COP28 energy goals should lay the foundation for countries’ new climate targets under the Paris Agreement – they are the North Star for what the energy sector needs to do,” IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol said. “And further international cooperation is vital to deliver fit-for-purpose grids, sufficient energy storage and faster electrification, which are integral to move clean energy transitions quickly and securely.”
MENA is the acronym for “Middle East and North Africa”, regularly used in academic and business writings. It refers to a large region, from Morocco in northwest Africa to Iran in southwest Asia, which generally includes all the countries of the Middle East and North Africa. (1)
Indeed, the MENA region comprises 18 countries. It covers the area south of the Mediterranean, from Morocco to Egypt, and to the east, from Yemen to Iran, via the Arabian Peninsula. The heterogeneity of economic and political realities has taken into account the formulation of specific strategies for three sub-regions: North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia); the Middle East (Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Occupied Palestinian Territory); the Arabian Peninsula and Iran (Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Yemen).
MENA has no standardized definition, and the region and its constituent territories differ from one organization to another. However, the list of countries belonging to it is generally as follows: Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. (2)
The region holds a significant share of untapped human resources, with the highest youth unemployment rate and the lowest female labor force participation rate in the world. Most of the world’s oil reserves belong to MENA countries. Tourism, however, is another strong branch of their economy. (3)
The population of the Middle East and North Africa region is ethnically, religiously and linguistically diverse. With high unemployment, MENA’s human resources are a relatively under-exploited. However, these countries are increasingly focusing on education to overcome this handicap.
The region’s instability leads to serious conflicts, which counterbalance development efforts. This is particularly the case in Syria, Libya and Yemen. Infrastructure and people are paying a heavy price for these wars, and 15 million people have had to flee their countries to avoid atrocities. (4)
The MENA region is marked by historical conflicts resulting from the Cold War or arbitrary border demarcations in the wake of decolonization, the race for raw materials, intra-Arab and inter-religious conflicts, as well as the Middle East conflict. The spread of terrorist groups such as the “Islamic State” casts a shadow over the peaceful dynamics in certain countries, as well as their efforts to prepare their often-young populations for the challenges of the 21st century. (5)
Ten years after the “Arab Spring”, (6) the results are disappointing: hopes of political renewal have not materialized. Instead, many countries in the region are suffering repression civil war and jihadism. (7) However, the protest movements marked a historic turning point that opens up new prospects for the future. (8)
Religions in the MENA region are historically diverse: beyond the three great monotheistic religions and their respective denominations stemming from the Abrahamic tradition, (9) many other religions have developed since antiquity, some of which are still practiced in the 21st century. The Middle East is the cradle of religions practiced by more than 4 billion people worldwide, making it of great historical and cultural importance, and its role as a crossroads of civilizations between Asia, Africa and Europe attracts large numbers of pilgrims every year. Islam is the majority religion in all Middle Eastern countries except Lebanon, where the majority religion is Christianity, and Israel, where the majority religion is Judaism. (10)
Shifting regional alliances
Since 2011, the political, economic and cultural influence of the three MENA sub-regions and the relations between them have been changing. North African countries are increasingly becoming aware of their belonging to the African continent, which is reflected in their increased engagement within the African Union. On the other hand, cooperation within the Arab Maghreb Union has virtually come to a standstill, (11) particularly due to tensions between Algeria and Morocco over the Western Sahara issue. (12)
In recent decades, the countries of the Arabian Peninsula have dethroned Egypt and the Middle East as the economic hub of the MENA region, but they are losing stability due to their internal tensions (the war in Yemen, tensions with Iran).
New regional disputes have pushed the conflict between Israel and the Palestinian population into the background and, after years of informal rapprochement, that paved the way for the normalization of relations between Israel and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and then Bahrain in the summer of 2020. The UAE and Bahrain are thus, after Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, the third and fourth Arab countries to have normalized their relations with Israel.
These events are a sign of the profound upheavals that the Arab world has been going through for years. They have created a new dynamic, so that it cannot be ruled out that other countries will make the same progress. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are playing an important role in the formation of new alliances and divisions that mark the region. In addition, armed non-state or semi-state actors (Hizbu Allah in Lebanon and the Houthis in Yemen) are undermining the stability of several countries.
The MENA region is characterized by a complex linguistic and cultural landscape. It features the coexistence of Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, various dialects of Arabic, Amazigh languages, Kurdish, Hebrew, Farsi, and foreign languages such as French and English. This multilingual environment influences cultural exchanges, media, and social interactions across the region and with the rest of the world.
North Africa
The three main challenges facing the North African region, and thus the three priority thematic areas are: structural economic reforms to encourage employment and investment, the implementation of good governance principles, and safe and orderly migration. (13)
On the impact of good governance, legal system and economic freedom on foreign investment in the MENA region, Nada Kobeissi writes: (14)
“Within MENA countries, enhancing economic freedom in terms of trade, the financial sector and property rights is of absolute importance if the region is to attract more foreign investments. According to a World Bank report (World Bank, 2003), foreign investment could be five to six times what they are today, if exports other than oil were higher and were in better investment climates. Inefficient and costly services provided mostly by the public sector, raise the cost of MENA merchandise exports and limit attractiveness to investment (World Bank, 2003). The financial sector is controlled by state owned banks which dominate banking activities (up to 95% of assets in several countries in the MENA region) resulting in poor services, high costs, and weak financing of new investments and trade (World Bank, 2003). Due to a complete lack of faith in its domestic economic infrastructure, the Middle East holds the largest share of wealth abroad in the world, with $350 billion currently collecting interest abroad, rather than in local financial institutions.’’
North Africa is located in the immediate neighbourhood of Europe. The French language is also a link. In the south, North Africa borders countries in the Sahel region, characterised by a high level of poverty and instability. (15) It is in Europe’s interest for North Africa to be stable, prosperous and organised according to the rule of law.
The main factors that led to the “Arab Spring” protests, (16) namely the lack of economic prospects, youth unemployment, the repressive practices of national security agencies and limited opportunities to participate in political life, remain major challenges today. Some of North Africa’s shortcomings include: high population growth, (17) unequal participation in economic development and, to some extent, low resilience of the economy due to a lack of diversification, as well as the existence of youth training programmes (18) that are often ill-suited to the needs of the labour market. (19)
Excessive bureaucracy and technological backwardness are factors that explain the high unemployment rate among young people and the persistent unequal distribution of income and wealth in many countries. The lack of political and economic integration in the region is a hindrance to its development dynamics. (20)
Due to its cheap labour and geographic proximity, North Africa is an attractive production location. In response to the coronavirus crisis, Europe is also seeking shorter supply chains, for example in the agricultural or textile sectors.
With a total population of over 200 million, the region is already one of the most important export markets for Europe on the African continent. This is also why Europe is working to promote inclusive economic development in the Greater Maghreb, (21) which can open up horizons for younger generations.
In Libya, the overthrow of the former regime led to an internal armed conflict that is still ongoing. However, the “Arab Spring” also brought about positive developments. In Tunisia, a democratic process took place. (22) In some countries, despite the repression, there is also an active civil society that is mobilised in favour of civic and political freedoms.
Other ongoing developments may be of some importance. Indeed, several areas are directly threatened by the effects of climate change (23) and by the lack of access to fresh water. In addition, rapid urbanisation is a major challenge for cities such as Algiers, Casablanca and Cairo. In these areas, support is need based on innovative solutions. (24)
Middle East
The three main challenges facing the Middle East region, and thus the three priority thematic areas are: armed or political conflicts, economic development, and governance. In addition, successful start-ups occupying a leading position on the international stage are developing in several countries in the region, which opens up interesting prospects.
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which has been raging for more than 76 years, has crystallised around territorial claims. After the Second World War, the mandate for Palestine that had been entrusted to Great Britain by the League of Nations ended. In 1947, the UN adopted a partition plan providing for the division of Palestine under the British mandate into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The State of Israel was founded in 1948. (25) The Israeli-Arab conflict broke out the same year; It has led to a refugee crisis that is still ongoing. An estimated 750,000 Palestinians were on the run in 1950. (26) As refugee status is passed down from generation to generation, and because of the lack of a political solution and demographic changes, (27) there are now more than 5.5 million Palestinian refugees, according to statistics from the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, UNRWA. (28) Some of these people are stateless and others are citizens of other Near Eastern states. They live in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. One third of them reside in locations officially recognized as refugee camps. The essential services provided by UNRWA are of crucial importance to Palestinian refugees. Since they rarely have access to the labour market, they are unable to develop long-term prospects and remain dependent on the system.
The Middle East continues to face major economic, social and political challenges. The population boom, restrictions on fundamental rights and difficult economic conditions are leading to high unemployment and protest movements. The young generation is particularly affected by the lack of economic prospects, which can foster the emergence of violent extremism (Jihadi Salafism). (29) The protest movements that have been shaking Lebanon since the end of 2019 and the reactions to the explosion in Beirut in August 2020 reflect a significant political awareness, but also the frustration of the population.
The acceleration of economic, financial and migratory exchanges, as well as the desire for genuine international governance, are making it urgent to create a new generation of managers. They must manage inequalities in development, the multiplicity of forms of exercising power and cultural diversity, firstly to prevent differences from becoming grounds for confrontation, and secondly to contribute to the dialogue of civilizations.
The Mediterranean and the Middle East together form a unique observation area for this type of challenge. A meeting point between Europe and the Muslim world, this region, marked by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the “Arab Springs” and their aftermath (the Syrian, Libyan and Yemeni crises), is dominated by major political, economic, energy, environmental and migratory issues. It is also a zone of complex political influences and repeated military interventions, offering countless examples of unexpected conflicts or, conversely, surprising cohabitations of identities, which constantly put to the test the universal character of democracy and the rule of Law.
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